**Intro**
It was not uncommon for political and military leaders of the Seljuk Turks during the 11th and 12th centuries CE to wake up to a surprise: a dagger firmly planted on the floor next to their bed. Despite the fortress walls, bolted doors, and armed guards, someone had entered their bedroom and left a note – do as you are told, or the next time the dagger will be planted into your chest. But sometimes, no warning was given. The merciless blade would find its way into the heart or throat of its target. Intimidation and targeted killings of high-profile victims became hallmark tactics in a protracted and often desperate fight against a powerful invader. They became known as the Assassins, loyal followers and guardians of their leader, Hasan Sabbah.

**A Foreword**
Hasan and his followers emerged in a confusing and murky period of political, ethnic, and religious strife in Persia and the Middle East, where different Muslim factions fought each other and against European Crusaders. The history from that period is shrouded in myth, legend, and propaganda. Who were the Assassins, and what was their agenda? What was their relationship with the Knights Templar? Who was the mysterious Old Man of the Mountain? Today, I will try to answer these questions by narrating Hasan’s life. But first, how did the Assassin’s legend start in Europe?

**Legend of the Assassins**
One of the first written accounts about the Assassins comes from a French priest and historian living in Syria, William of Tyre. In the early 1180s, William wrote: “In the province of Tyre… is a certain people who have ten castles and surrounding lands, and we have often heard that there are sixty thousand of them or more… Both we and the Saracens call them Assassins, but I don’t know where the name comes from.” However, Europeans would have to wait until 1298 to learn more about this mysterious Order when Rustichello da Pisa published *The Travels of Marco Polo*. The Venetian traveler describes a land called ‘Mulehet’ where an Old Man of the Mountain used to live. The Man had built the largest and most beautiful garden in the world, where only those whom the Old Man wanted to turn into his Assassins were admitted. He drugged them with opium, and upon waking up in the garden, they believed they were experiencing a vision of Heaven. The next time they woke up, the Old Man had brought them back to the ‘real world’. Longing to return to that Heaven, these young men were manipulated to become Assassins on behalf of the Old Man. Only death as a martyr for their cause would grant them a return to that Garden of Delights. Marco Polo claims that it was for that reason the Assassins were such effective killers, and the Old Man was so feared that rulers in Asia would pay him a regular tribute. Polo’s account concludes by narrating how in 1265, the Lord of the Tatars, Alau, tired of this wickedness, laid siege to the Old Man’s fortress for three years before starving out the Man of the Mountain and all his Assassins. But how much of Marco Polo’s account is truth and how much is legend or slander circulated by enemies? We’ll find out now: enter Hasan Sabbah.

**Hasan the Student**
Hasan Sabbah was born in 1050 in Qom, modern-day Iran. Qom was, and still is, considered one of the holiest cities in Shi’a Islam and the leading center for Muslim scholarship in Persia. His father, Ali bin Muhammad bin Ja‘far al-Sabbah al-Himyari, was originally Yemeni and belonged to the Twelver tradition of Shi’a Islam. After Hasan’s birth, the Sabbah family settled in Ray, where the young Hasan received his early religious education in accordance with his father’s creed.

Before I continue, allow me to clarify some religious terms. For example, what is the difference between Shi’a and Sunni Muslims? These two factions share many spiritual beliefs and religious practices, as their schism was political in nature. After the death of Muhammad in 632, his adviser Abu Bakr became the first Caliph, or ‘successor of the Prophet’, tasked with leading the Islamic nation. However, his leadership was challenged by the followers of Ali, the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law. This faction originated the Shi’a sect, which believes that the leadership of the Islamic nation belongs to the direct descendants of the Prophet. On the other hand, Sunni Muslims believe that leadership is not a birthright; it can and must be earned. The Twelver tradition is the mainstream belief among Shi’as, named for the Twelve successors of Muhammad, the last of whom, Muhammad ibn Hasan al-Mahdī, is yet to return to become mankind’s savior.

The city of Ray, where young Hasan lived, was at the center of another Shi’a current, the Ismailis, who derive their name from their allegiance to Ismail, the eldest son of Imam Jafar as-Sadiq. Ismailis are the second largest denomination within Shi’a Islam, and what differentiates them from other Shi’a currents is that they have a living, hereditary Imam. In Ray, Hasan was introduced to the Ismaili doctrine by two prominent da’is, or missionaries: Amira Zarrab and Abu Nasr Sarraj. Following these studies, at the age of seventeen, Hasan converted to Ismailism and took an oath of allegiance to the Ismaili imam of the time, the Fatimid Caliph: al-Mustansir. The Fatimid Dynasty ruled the most powerful Muslim state of the era from their capital in Cairo. Despite their power, the Fatimids were under constant threat from the Seljuk Turks, another powerful dynasty originating from Central Asia. By the 1070s, the Seljuks had swept through Persia and the Middle East, establishing a Sunni Sultanate.

Our newly converted Ismaili student, Hasan, at age 22, ventured into those territories, managing to impress Abd al-Malik Ibn Attash, the chief Isma‘ili da‘i in the Seljuk Sultanate, so much so that he got a job as a missionary. In this delicate role, Hasan first traveled to the secret Persian Ismaili headquarters in Isfahan, deep into Seljuk territory. He then went to Cairo and Alexandria to perfect his education. During his time in Egypt, Hasan clashed with some prominent figures in the Ismaili organization, particularly the Vizier to the Fatimid court, al-Afdal. The conflict revolved around succession to the Caliphate and, by extension, to the Imamate: in other words, who would be the next leader of the Ismailis? The current caliph, Al-Mustansir, had appointed his eldest son, Imam Nizar, as his future successor, while Vizier al-Afdal was lobbying to install Nizar’s younger brother, Musta’li, who happened to be his son-in-law. Hasan supported Nizar, making him an enemy of the powerful Vizier.

The outcome of this intrigue was a further schism within Islam, with Nizari Ismailis now rivaling Musta’li Ismailis. Hasan was exiled by al-Afdal and returned to Persia in June 1081. By now, he had become the most prominent da’i for the nascent Nizari community.

**Hasan, the Strategist**
Over the following years, Hasan traveled across Persia, spreading the word of the Nizaris. During this period, he increased his following and started drawing plans to rid his land of the Seljuk occupation. What motivated Hasan Sabbah to revolt against the Seljuks? He had three different sets of reasons:

1. From a religious perspective, the ardently Sunni Seljuks did not hide their hostility against Shi’as of all sects, and the Nizaris and Ismailis feared for their religious freedom.
2. Politically, Hasan still had allegiance to the Egyptian Fatimids, despite his exile. The Seljuk Turks had stretched as far as the Sinai, threatening to uproot the Caliphate.
3. Nationally, Hasan’s revolt could have been an expression of the Persians’ resentment over the alien rule of the Seljuk Turks.

I am pretty sure that Hasan had never read Sun-Tzu, yet the strategy he formulated was ‘pure Art of War’: he assessed the weaknesses of his faction and those of the Seljuks. The Nizari were heavily outnumbered, while Seljuk leaders were scattered across the vast Persian territory. How could he multiply the effectiveness of his forces? How could he deal severe blows to the occupiers without staging pitch battles on a dispersive territory? His answer was to quickly occupy the high ground and establish a series of impregnable mountain strongholds from which to launch targeted killings of political and military leaders throughout the country. The Assassin Creed was beginning to take shape.

**Hasan, the Resistance Leader**
By 1087, Hasan had concentrated his efforts on recruiting a resistance movement around the Daylam region, a traditional Shi’a stronghold. By September 1090, he had taken control of the region and seized the fortress of Alamut – “The Teaching of the Eagle” – located in the central Elburz Mountains of the Rudbar region. He did so by cunning and peaceful means, converting the soldiers of the local garrison one by one. Hasan made the fortress impregnable and self-sufficient by improving the cultivation and irrigation systems of the Alamut valley. He also established an important library, holding a vast collection of manuscripts and scientific instruments. After firmly establishing himself at Alamut, Hasan extended his influence in the region by winning more converts and expanding his network of fortresses in Rudbar.

In 1091, Hasan sent one of his followers, da‘i Husayn Qa’ini, to Quhistan, near the border with modern-day Afghanistan. Husayn successfully started a popular uprising among local Shi’as seeking independence from the Seljuks, allowing the Nizaris to gain control of several towns in Quhistan. In less than two years after the capture of Alamut, Hasan Sabbah had founded an independent territorial state for the Nizari Isma‘ilis in the midst of the Seljuk sultanate.

**The Conflict Intensifies**
The Persian Shia population saw the Seljuk Turks as invaders and oppressors. Sunni sources beg to differ, pointing to the fact that the Seljuks tried to extend a friendly hand to the locals. Their Sultan Malik Shah, for example, appointed a Persian, Abu Ali Hassan bin Ali bin Ishaq, better known as Nizam al-Mulk, as his Vizier. According to legend, Hasan and Nizam had been classmates and friends in their youth. After becoming Vizier, Nizam helped Hasan by securing him a post at the court of Malik Shah. However, their rivalry erupted, and Nizam conspired to have Hasan exiled.

This legend would make Hasan’s mission one of personal revenge against his childhood friend who had betrayed him. As romantic as this story sounds, Nizam was 32 years older than Hasan, and there was no chance they could have been schoolmates. What happened next was purely politically motivated. In 1092, Nizam launched a Seljuk counter-attack against the Nizaris in Alamut and Quhistan, but Hasan’s strategy proved effective. His small garrisons atop the easily defendable mountain strongholds were able to repel attack after attack. During the siege of Alamut, Hasan was able to extract his wife and daughters to another Ismaili community. He never brought them back, starting a tradition of not allowing women into the fortress.

Hasan’s next move was to go on the offensive. Lacking the numbers for a full-on military campaign, Hasan relied on his next favorite tactic: targeted killings intended to decapitate Seljuk leadership. Hasan picked the fidai or ‘faithful’ who would carry out the mission: Bu Tahir Arrani. Disguised as a Sufi, a Muslim mystic, the fidai approached the litter in which his target was traveling. Swift and silent, his dagger left its sheath and plunged into Arrani’s target: Nizam Al-Mulk. The vizier died on the spot. The same fate befell Tahir Arrani, who was immediately cut down by Nizam’s bodyguards. This was the first high-profile assassination carried out by the faithful soldiers of the Nizari army. Hasan and his two immediate successors ordered a total of 75 tactical killings, always aimed at high-profile targets and never on civilians.

The occupiers would often retaliate with massacres among Ismaili communities, followed by further surgical strikes on Hasan’s orders. Unsurprisingly, the actions of the fidais earned them the hatred of the Seljuks and a large part of the Sunni community. They painted them as radical extremists and proto-terrorists, and at the same time as dissolute drug addicts. This is when the Nizari Fidais became known as Hashishin or Assassins, the users of hashish.

**Assassins?**
Did the Assassins, or Hashishins, actually smoke hashish? In reality, they never used that word to describe themselves. Their correct description would be ‘Fidais of the Nizari Ismaili Army’. The name was stuck on them by Marco Polo and William of Tyre, who had heard it from the enemies of the Nizari in Syria. It is true that soldiers across time and space have made use of recreational and prescription drugs to get themselves in the right state for battle. But here is a question for you: if you were Hasan, would you really trust a stoner with a delicate mission involving climbing castle walls, picking locks, evading guards, and stabbing a high-profile enemy?

And how about the munchies? Sure, the stoner’s best friend, the kebab, was invented by Turk soldiers, but not until 1377! So, it is not disputed that the word Assassin actually comes from Hashish, but it is now accepted that these highly skilled and trained warriors were not on drugs. They simply found themselves stuck with a slur thrown on them by their numerous enemies. It did not help that the slur was a strong-sounding word, ASSASSIN, which was quickly adopted by popular European poets in the 13th and 14th centuries – one for all: Dante Alighieri, author of the Divine Comedy.

**Nizari Expansion**
Shortly after the assassination of Nizam Al-Mulk, the Seljuk Sultan Malik Shah also died. The causes remain mysterious; maybe they were natural or perhaps he was poisoned. As a result, the Sultanate was plunged into chaos and a civil war between Malik’s eldest son Berkyaruq and his brother Sanjar, supported by their half-brother Muhammad Tapar. The state was further fractured by the emergence of independent warlords. Taking advantage of the disorder, Hasan consolidated and extended his power, seizing more strategically located fortresses, extending as far as Damghan, 500 km to the east of the Alamut headquarters, or even further to Khuzestan, 1000 km to the south. Hasan was unstoppable.

During this period, he consolidated his reputation as an austere and ascetic leader. In a short span of time, we don’t know exactly when, he had both his sons executed: Muhammad was guilty of drinking wine, while Ustad was a suspect in the death of Hasan’s loyal lieutenant Husayn Qaini. The Nizari leader personally turned inwards but politically sought expansion. It is said that he never again left his castle, but in the early years of the 12th century, Hasan began sending his da‘is from Alamut into Syria. Here, the Nizaris resumed their practice of establishing mountain strongholds. The most important one was the Masyaf fortress. Years later, Masyaf would be under the command of Rashīd ad-Dīn, who achieved fame due to his numerous attempts to assassinate Saladin. It was he, not Hasan, who gave rise to the legend of the Old Man of the Mountain. It was the Syrian Assassins who would first make contact with the Templars.

**The Assassins and the Knights Templar**
I will take a quick detour now to cover the relationship between these two groups, even if it is out of scope of Hasan’s life. A certain media franchise has painted these two organizations as mortal rivals throughout the ages and across continents. However, these two factions had much in common. Both were elite warrior corps, motivated by both political and religious drives, and both would at some point be slandered and accused of heresy by powerful enemies. The tension between Assassins and Templars in the Levant, or the Holy Land, never escalated into a full clash. There were some hostilities, but the two sometimes acted as allies, as the Syrian Nizari were more interested in fighting other Muslim enemies rather than the Christians.

From 1152, they interacted almost like rival cartels with assigned territories, wary of stepping too much on each other’s toes. In that year, the fidais claimed one of their few Christian victims, Count Raymond of Tripoli. In reparation, the Templars in Lebanon demanded a tribute of two thousand bezants a year, sounding almost like ‘protection money’. On another occasion, it was the Syrian Assassins who demanded protection money from none other than King Louis IX of France while he was visiting Acre, in modern-day Israel. If the King paid, the Old Man of the Mountain would let him live. Grandmaster Joinville of the Templars intervened and sent the envoy back home empty-handed, but with a non-aggression pact between the King and the Old Man.

**Religious Leadership**
In 1097, the Imam Nizar, spiritual leader to Hasan and his men, was killed in Cairo. His rival, the Vizier Al-Afdal, had him buried alive between two walls. When the news reached Hasan, he sent for Nizar’s young son to be rescued from Cairo and brought to safety in Alamut. Until now, Hasan Sabbah had been the political and military leader of the Nizari in Persia. From now on, in the absence of a manifest imam, he would also serve as the religious leader of the whole Nizari community.

In the last years of the 11th century, Hasan launched an offensive close to the heart of the Seljuk Sultanate. The objective was the fortress of Shahdiz, near the capital Isfahan. His agent for the operation was Ahmad bin Attash, the son of Hasan’s first teacher after he had become an Ismaili. Ahmad did not use the dagger, only his faith. One by one, he converted the children and then the soldiers of the garrison. By 1100, Ahmad and the Nizaris had successfully infiltrated and occupied the castle. The road to Isfahan was open, but eventually, the Nizari did not achieve total victory.