The year is 1656. Your body is wracked by violent chills. Your head pounds, your muscles are too weak to sit up, and you feel as if rancid, hard-boiled eggs are squeezing out of your neck and armpits. In your feverish state, you see a strange-looking man approach, his face obscured by a beak-like mask, his body covered from head to toe. He examines you and even without seeing his face, you know the diagnosis: you have the plague.
The plague stands out as one of the most terrifying and destructive diseases in human history. It swept across large parts of Afro-Eurasia in three separate pandemics starting in the 6th, 14th, and 19th centuries; killed tens of millions of people, and had— in the best of cases— about a 40% survival rate.
The European plague doctor, with his beaked mask and wizard-like robes, is one of the images most popularly associated with the plague today. He’s often found in books and films about the 14th-century pandemic known as the Black Death. However, this image is not entirely accurate. The iconic plague doctor actually emerged on the scene during a series of devastating outbreaks in Western Europe during the 17th century.
First described in the early 17th century, the outfit consisted of a hood with crystal eyepieces and a beak filled with a pungent combination of herbs and compounds. This could include cinnamon, pepper, turpentine, roast copper, and powdered viper flesh. This recipe was inspired by the famed 2nd-century Greco-Roman physician Galen and was thought to ward off poisoned air known as miasma. People believed this bad air spread plague after emanating from swamps and sources of decay, such as dead plants or animal carcasses.
The rest of the costume, which included an oiled leather robe, boots, and gloves, acted as a kind of early hazmat suit, likely designed to block miasma from entering through the skin’s pores. While this shows some basic understanding that plague spread from one place to another, these doctors didn’t know that, in most cases, the true culprit was a tiny flea transmitting the bacteria, Yersinia pestis, from one person or animal to another.
It’s possible that the plague doctor’s outfit may have provided some unintentional protection from flea bites. However, not enough information survives to know whether the costumed doctors fared any better than their ordinarily robed counterparts. This bizarre getup has captured popular imagination, despite the fact that its use was limited to a few places in Italy and France during the 17th and early 18th centuries. Even at the time, it was viewed with macabre fascination and occasionally used to mock the ineffective and corrupt practices of some physicians.
Until the 20th century, there was no effective treatment for the plague, but that didn’t stop doctors— costumed or not— from trying. They consulted the works of earlier physicians for guidance, did what they could to fend off miasma, and prescribed a variety of concoctions and antidotes. They also relied on pre-modern medical mainstays. These could include bloodletting, which involved draining (sometimes concerningly large amounts of) blood in an attempt to remove poison or restore the body’s natural balance. Or cupping, where the rim of a heated glass was placed over swollen lymph nodes in hopes of making them burst sooner—a sign, when it occurred naturally, that a plague patient was on the mend. Or— perhaps most painfully— cautery, which involved lancing the lymph nodes with a red-hot poker to release the blackened pus within.
A lot has changed since those times. Modern medicine has given us the means to quickly identify bacterial as well as viral threats and to effectively mobilize against them. We also have access to technologies like test kits, masks to deter the spread of respiratory viruses, and vaccines; and we conduct robust trials to make sure they’re safe and effective. But some things don’t change: we still depend on the courage and compassion of medical professionals who voluntarily risk their lives against an invisible attacker to help and comfort those who need it most.
Imagine you are a plague doctor in the 17th century. Create a diary entry describing your day, the patients you see, and the treatments you administer. Include details about your outfit and how you feel about your work. Share your diary entry with the class and discuss the challenges faced by plague doctors.
Using materials like cardboard, paper, and paint, design and create your own plague doctor mask. Research the herbs and compounds that were placed in the beak and explain their supposed benefits. Present your mask and findings to the class.
Split into two groups. One group will argue for the effectiveness of historical medical practices used during the plague, while the other group will argue for modern medical practices. Use evidence from the article and additional research to support your arguments. Hold a class debate and discuss the evolution of medical practices.
Research and create a timeline that highlights the three major plague pandemics mentioned in the article. Include key events, the spread of the disease, and the impact on different regions. Use visuals like maps and images to enhance your timeline. Present your timeline to the class.
Prepare a set of questions and conduct an interview with a modern medical professional, such as a doctor or nurse. Ask about their experiences, the challenges they face, and how modern medicine has changed since the time of the plague. Record the interview and share it with the class, highlighting the differences and similarities between past and present medical practices.
Plague – A highly contagious and often fatal epidemic disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, transmitted to humans from rats by fleas. – The Black Death was one of the deadliest plagues in history, killing millions of people in Europe in the 14th century.
Diseases – Abnormal conditions affecting the body or mind that impair normal functioning and are typically manifested by distinguishing signs and symptoms. – Heart disease is one of the leading causes of death worldwide.
Pandemics – An outbreak of a disease that occurs over a wide geographic area and affects an exceptionally high proportion of the population. – The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on global health and the economy.
Survival rate – The percentage of people who survive a specific disease or treatment over a certain period of time. – The five-year survival rate for breast cancer has significantly improved due to advancements in early detection and treatment.
European plague doctor – A physician who treated patients during the bubonic plague in Europe, typically wearing a distinctive outfit and mask. – The European plague doctors wore long black robes and beaked masks filled with herbs to protect themselves from the plague.
Outfit – A set of clothes worn together, typically for a particular occasion or purpose. – The astronaut puts on his spacesuit, which is a specialized outfit designed for space exploration.
Miasma – An unpleasant or unhealthy smell or vapor believed to be a cause of disease. – In the 19th century, miasma theory suggested that foul odors in the air were responsible for spreading diseases like cholera.
Medical practices – Procedures or techniques employed by medical professionals to diagnose, treat, and prevent diseases. – Traditional Chinese medicine incorporates various medical practices such as acupuncture and herbal remedies.
Bloodletting – A medical practice of withdrawing blood from a patient to prevent or cure illness and disease. – Bloodletting was a common treatment in medieval Europe, but it is no longer considered an effective medical practice.
Modern medicine – The practice of medicine based on scientific research and advancements in technology and understanding of diseases. – Modern medicine has made significant progress in the treatment of cancer through chemotherapy and targeted therapies.
